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...Ecology and the environment oxford handbooks online anya plutynski handbook of philosophy biology edited by michael ruse print publication date jul subject science sep doi oxfordhb abstract keywords is study interactions organisms their environments methods fall roughly into three categories descriptive surveys patterns species resource distribution abundance theoretical modeling experimental manipulations ecological systems are open processes products a huge number interacting forces environmental sciences have made enormous advances since mid twentieth century in understanding as well human impact on theory usually centers development models outcomes uncertain when making decisions under uncertainty there variety options available one option to carry out cost benefit analysis based upon expected utilities other adopt precautionary principle determination evidence fact life interaction system model introduction term from greek oikos which means house or dwelling was coined haeckel ref...